Heteroepitaxy of Semiconductors

Heteroepitaxy has evolved rapidly in recent years. With each new wave of material/substrate combinations, our understanding of how to control crystal growth becomes more refined. Most books on the subject focus on a specific material or material family, narrowly explaining the processes and techniques appropriate for each. Surveying the principles common to all types of semiconductor materials, Heteroepitaxy of Semiconductors: Theory, Growth, and Characterization is the first comprehensive, fundamental introduction to the field. This book reflects our current understanding of nucleation, growth modes, relaxation of strained layers, and dislocation dynamics without emphasizing any particular material. Following an overview of the properties of semiconductors, the author introduces the important heteroepitaxial growth methods and provides a survey of semiconductor crystal surfaces, their structures, and nucleation. With this foundation, the book provides in-depth descriptions of mismatched heteroepitaxy and lattice strain relaxation, various characterization tools used to monitor and evaluate the growth process, and finally, defect engineering approaches. Numerous examples highlight the concepts while extensive micrographs, schematics of experimental setups, and graphs illustrate the discussion. Serving as a solid starting point for this rapidly evolving area, Heteroepitaxy of Semiconductors: Theory, Growth, and Characterization makes the principles of heteroepitaxy easily accessible to anyone preparing to enter the field.

Introduction Properties of Semiconductors Introduction Crystallographic Properties Lattice Constants and Thermal Expansion Coefficients Elastic Properties Surface Free Energy Dislocations Planar Defects Problems References Heteroepitaxial Growth Introduction Vapor Phase Epitaxy (VPE) Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE) Silicon, Germanium, and Si1-xGex Alloys Silicon Carbide III-Arsenides, III-Phosphides, and III-Antimonides III-Nitrides II-VI Semiconductors Conclusion Problems References Surface and Chemical Considerations in Heteroepitaxy Introduction Surface Reconstructions Nucleation Growth Modes Nucleation Layers Surfactants in Heteroepitaxy Quantum Dots and Self-Assembly Problems References Mismatched Heteroepitaxial Growth and Strain Relaxation Introduction Pseudomorphic Growth and the Critical Layer Thickness Dislocation Sources Interactions between Misfit Dislocations Lattice Relaxation Mechanisms Quantitative Models for Lattice Relaxation Lattice Relaxation on Vicinal Substrates: Crystallographic Tilting of Heteroepitaxial Layers Lattice Relaxation in Graded Layers Lattice Relaxation in Superlattices and Multilayer Structures Dislocation Coalescence, Annihilation, and Removal in Relaxed Heteroepitaxial Layers Thermal Strain Cracking in Thick Films Problems References Characterization of Heteroepitaxial Layers Introduction X-Ray Diffraction Electron Diffraction Microscopy Crystallographic Etching Techniques Photoluminescence Growth Rate and Layer Thickness Composition and Strain Determination of Critical Layer Thickness Crystal Orientation Defect Types and Densities Multilayered Structures and Superlattices Growth Mode Problems References Defect Engineering in Heteroepitaxial Layers Introduction Buffer Layer Approaches Reduced Area Growth Using Patterned Substrates Patterning and Annealing Epitaxial Lateral Overgrowth (ELO) Pendeo-Epitaxy Nanoheteroepitaxy Planar Compliant Substrates Free-Standing Semiconductor Films Conclusion Problems References Appendix A: Bandgap Engineering Diagrams Appendix B: Lattice Constants and Coefficients of Thermal Expansion Appendix C: Elastic Constants Appendix D: Critical Layer Thickness Appendix E: Crystallographic Etches Appendix F: Tables for X-Ray Diffraction Index