They Fought Like Veterans: The Military History of the Civil War in the Indian Territory

The Civil War within the Indian Territory represented a peripheral aspect of the broader conflict, situated in a less prominent region of the Trans-Mississippi West. The area did not witness significant battles or the emergence of notable military leaders; indeed, many senior officers from both Union and Confederate armies were assigned to this region following unsuccessful campaigns further east. However, the intensity of animosity and violence in the Indian Territory was unparalleled compared to other Civil War regions. Most of the Five Civilized Tribes-Cherokee, Creek, Choctaw, Chickasaw, and Seminole-had resided in the territory for less than a quarter-century. While initial support among these nations leaned toward the Southern Confederacy, consensus was lacking, leading to internal divisions. These splits closely mirrored earlier fractures between pro-treaty members (predominantly of mixed ancestry) and anti-removal members (primarily full-blooded), divisions that originated during the 1820s and 1830s after implementation of the Indian Removal Acts. Relocation moved these nations into what became known as Indian Territory, now largely comprising the State of Oklahoma. Many tribal members, having assimilated aspects of Southern culture prior to removal, had become slaveholders. Individuals from each tribe served on both sides of the conflict, often confronting one another in battle. By the war's end, the Indian Territory had been left nearly deserted. The strife of the Civil War severely fractured the Five Civilized Tribes, splitting allegiances between the Union and the Confederacy. Two United States Army expeditions ultimately restored federal control north of the Arkansas River and precipitated the Confederate withdrawal from Fort Smith, Arkansas, effectively severing supply lines from the East. Hostilities concluded quietly in June 1865 when the remaining Confederate forces under Brigadier General Stand Watie surrendered to the United States Government.