Practical Gamma-Ray Spectrometry 2E

The Second Edition of Practical Gamma-Ray Spectrometry has been completely revised and updated, providing comprehensive coverage of the whole gamma-ray detection and spectrum analysis processes. Drawn on many years of teaching experience to produce this uniquely practical volume, issues discussed include the origin of gamma-rays and the issue of quality assurance in gamma-ray spectrometry. This new edition also covers the analysis of decommissioned nuclear plants, computer modelling systems for calibration, uncertainty measurements in QA, and many more topics.

Preface to the Second Edition xv
Preface to the First Edition xvii
Internet Resources within the Book xix
1 Radioactive Decay and the Origin of Gamma and X-Radiation 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Beta Decay 21.3 Alpha Decay 71.4 Spontaneous Fission (SF) 81.5 Minor Decay Modes 81.6 Gamma Emission 81.7 Other Sources of Photons 121.8 The Mathematics of Decay and Growth of Radioactivity 151.9 The Chart of the Nuclides 19
2 Interactions of Gamma Radiation with Matter 252.1 Introduction 252.2 Mechanisms of Interaction 252.3 Total Attenuation Coefficients 292.4 Interactions within the Detector 302.5 Interactions within the Shielding 332.6 Bremsstrahlung 352.7 Attenuation of Gamma Radiation 362.8 The Design of Detector Shielding 36
3 Semiconductor Detectors for Gamma-Ray Spectrometry 393.1 Introduction 393.2 Semiconductors and Gamma-Ray Detection 403.3 The Nature of Semiconductors 433.4 The Manufacture of Germanium Detectors 453.5 Detector Capacitance 493.6 Charge Collection in Detectors 503.7 Packaging of Detectors 55
4 Electronics for Gamma-Ray Spectrometry 614.1 The General Electronic System 614.2 Detector Bias Supplies 664.3 Preamplifiers 664.4 Amplifiers and Pulse Processors 704.5 Resolution Enhancement 804.6 Multichannel Analysers and their Analogue-to-Digital Converters 814.7 Live Time Correction and Loss-Free Counting 924.8 Spectrum Stabilization 944.9 Coincidence and Anticoincidence Gating 964.10 Multiplexing and Multiscaling 964.11 Digital Pulse Processing Systems 97
5 Statistics of Counting 1015.1 Introduction 1015.2 Counting Distributions 1025.3 Sampling Statistics 1045.4 Peak Area Measurement 1085.5 Optimizing Counting Conditions 1115.6 Counting Decision Limits 1145.7 Special Counting Situations 1215.8 Uncertainty Budgets 123
6 Resolution: Origins and Control 1316.1 Introduction 1316.2 Charge Production - wP 1336.3 Charge Collection - wC 1346.4 Electronic Noise - wE 1366.5 Resolving the Peak Width Calibration 138
7 Spectrometer Calibration 1437.1 Introduction 1437.2 Reference Data for Calibration 1437.3 Sources for Calibration 1447.4 Energy Calibration 1447.5 Peak Width Calibration 1477.6 Efficiency Calibration 1507.7 Mathematical Efficiency Calibration 160
8 True Coincidence Summing 1658.1 Introduction 1658.2 The Origin of Summing 1668.3 Summing and Solid Angle 1668.4 Spectral Evidence of Summing 1678.5 Validity of Close Geometry Calibrations 1688.6 Summary 1718.7 Summing in Environmental Measurements 1718.8 Achieving Valid Close Geometry Efficiency Calibrations 1728.9 TCS, Geometry and Composition 1748.10 Achieving 'Summing-free' measurements 1758.11 Mathematical Summing Corrections 1768.12 Software for Correction of TCS 178
9 Computer Analysis of Gamma-Ray Spectra 1839.1 Introduction 1839.2 Methods of Locating Peaks in the Spectrum 1859.3 Library Directed Peak Searches 1879.4 Energy Calibration 1889.5 Estimation of the Peak Centroid 1899.6 Peak Width Calibration 1899.7 Determination of the Peak Limits 1919.8 Measurements of Peak Area 1929.9 Full Energy Peak Efficiency Calibration 1939.10 Multiplet Peak Resolution by Deconvolution 1959.11 Peak Stripping as a Means of Avoiding Deconvolution 1969.12 The Analysis of the Sample Spectrum 1979.13 Nuclide Identification 2009.14 The Final Report 2009.15 Setting Up Nuclide and Gamma-Ray Libraries 2019.16 Buying Spectrum Analysis Software 2029.17 The Spectrum Analysis Programs Referred to in the Text 202
10 Scintillation Spectrometry 20510.1 Introduction 20510.2 The Scintillation Process 20510.3 Scintillation Activators 20610.4 Life time of Excited States 20610.5 Temperature Variation of the Scintillator Response 20710.6 Scintillator Detector Materials 20710.7 Photomultiplier Tubes 21110.8 The Photocathode 21110.9 The Dynode Electron Multiplier Chain 21210.10 Photodiode Scintillation Detectors 21210.11 Construction of the Complete Detector 21310.12 The Resolution of Scintillation Systems 21410.13 Electronics for Scintillation Systems 21610.14 Comparison of Sodium Iodide and Germanium Detectors 218
11 Choosing and Setting up a Detector, and Checking its Specifications 22111.1 Introduction 22111.2 Setting up a Germanium Detector System 22211.3 Optimizing the Electronic System 22811.4 Checking the Manufacturer's Specification 232
12 Troubleshooting 23912.1 Fault-Finding 23912.2 Preamplifier Test Point and Leakage Current 24312.3 Thermal Cycling of the Detector 24412.4 Ground Loops, Pick-up and Microphonics 246
13 Low Count Rate Systems 25113.1 Introduction 25113.2 Counting with High Efficiency 25313.3 The Effect of Detector Shape 25713.4 Low Background Systems 26213.5 Active Background Reduction 27013.6 Ultra-Low-Level Systems 273
14 High Count Rate Systems 27914.1 Introduction 27914.2 Detector Throughput 28014.3 Preamplifiers for High Count Rate 28114.4 Amplifiers 28314.5 Digital Pulse Processing 28614.6 The ADC and MCA 28814.7 Dead Times and Throughput 28814.8 System Checks 292
15 Ensuring Quality in Gamma-Ray Spectrometry 29515.1 Introduction 29515.2 Nuclear Data 29615.3 Radionuclide Standards 29615.4 Maintaining Confidence in the Equipment 29715.5 Gaining Confidence in the Spectrum Analysis 30115.6 Maintaining Records 31115.7 Accreditation 312
16 Gamma Spectrometry of Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials (NORM) 31516.1 Introduction 31516.2 The NORM Decay Series 31516.3 Gamma Spectrometry of the NORM Nuclides 31816.4 Nuclear Data of the NORM Nuclides 32416.5 Measurement of Chemically Modified NORM 324
17 Applications 32917.1 Gamma Spectrometry and the CTBT 32917.2 Gamma Spectrometry of Nuclear Industry Wastes 33317.3 Safeguards 33517.4 PINS - Portable Isotopic Neutron Spectrometry 340
Appendix A: Sources of Information 343A.1 Introduction 343A.2 Nuclear Data 343A.3 Internet Sources of Other Nuclear Data 347A.4 Chemical Information 347A.5 Miscellaneous Information 348A.6 Other Publications in print 348
Appendix B: Gamma- and X-Ray Standards for Detector Calibration 351
Appendix C: X-Rays Routinely Found in Gamma Spectra 359
Appendix D: Gamma-Ray Energies in the Detector Background and the Environment 361
Appendix E: Chemical Names, Symbols and Relative Atomic Masses of the Elements 365
Glossary 369
Index 381