| Foreword Marie-Claire Bergère | 15 |
| Acknowledgments | 21 |
| Introduction | 23 |
| Chapter 1 The Laggards | 29 |
| The Social Repercussions of Late Economic Development | 30 |
| Different Degrees of Cultural Heterogeneity | 36 |
| Divergence and Ultimate Convergence | 40 |
| Tsarism: An Even More Desperate Case Than the Guomindang | 45 |
| The Impact of World Wars and Civil Wars | 47 |
| Chapter 2 Catching Up | 51 |
| The Economy | 51 |
| Qita | 63 |
| Chapter 3 Politics | 79 |
| Stages … | 79 |
| … and Similarities | 81 |
| Chinese Specificities? | 91 |
| Appreciation of the Differences and Their Origins | 98 |
| Chapter 4 The Peasants | 105 |
| Russia | 105 |
| China | 125 |
| Comparison | 145 |
| Chapter 5 Famines | 153 |
| Innocent Revolutionaries? | 155 |
| The Great Turn | 159 |
| The Great Leap Forward | 168 |
| Comparisons | 181 |
| Chapter 6 Bureaucracy | 195 |
| Numbers | 197 |
| Working Class Origins | 200 |
| Mao and the New Chinese Class | 203 |
| Behavior and Corruption: The Caste and Its Privileges | 209 |
| After the Purge: The Transformation of the Elite and the Consolidation of Its Privileges | 220 |
| Chapter 7 Culture | 229 |
| Cultural Policies: Some Differences among the Massive Similarities | 232 |
| Inevitable Similarities and Notable Differences in the Face of a Revolutionary Regime | 256 |
| Chapter 8 The Camp | 277 |
| Categories of Prisoners | 281 |
| From Arrest to the Camp | 285 |
| The Camps | 292 |
| Thought Reform | 307 |
| Chapter 9 Dictators | 321 |
| The Most Cruel | 331 |
| The Most Inconsistent | 343 |
| Grand Terror and Cultural Revolution | 353 |
| Conclusion | 365 |
| Lenin … | 365 |
| … and Marx | 369 |
| Assessment | 371 |
| Lies, Fear, and Debasement | 373 |
| Appendix Before and After: Yan’an, 1942–1943 | 379 |
| Notes | 387 |
| Works Cited | 439 |
| Index | 467 |
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