| List of Figures | 15 |
| List of Tables | 16 |
| Acknowledgements | 17 |
| Introduction | 23 |
| Research Aim | 26 |
| Qing Empire: A Contradictory Unity | 33 |
| Confucian Scholar-Bureaucrats and Heresies | 35 |
| Religion as Worldview | 40 |
| State: To Preach or to Govern? | 44 |
| Religion-State Relationships: How Do Religion and State Work Together? | 49 |
| Chapter 1: State Religions, Islam, and Christianity in Late Imperial China | 56 |
| Religion-State Relationships in Late Imperial China | 57 |
| Islam and Christianity in Late Imperial China | 70 |
| Chapter 2: Emperor Yongzheng and Redefined Heterodoxy | 80 |
| Tradition of the Way and Tradition of Governance | 81 |
| Regulation Instead of Persecution | 87 |
| Incoherent Policies in the Governance of Islam and Christianity | 95 |
| Emperor and Bureaucracy on Heresy | 99 |
| Chapter 3: Governance of Religions in the Five Castle-Cities of Ili | 111 |
| Sources and Background Information | 115 |
| The Construction and Transformation of Religious Sites in Ili: 1764–1864 | 122 |
| To Conquer without Forcing Conversion? | 136 |
| Reasons for Toleration and Its Implications | 140 |
| Chapter 4: Marginalisation of Islam in Imperial Politics | 145 |
| Connections to the Islamic World and the Muslims’ War against the Qing Empire | 146 |
| Muslim Local Collaborators and Marginalisation of Religion in the Qing Governance of Muslim Subjects | 157 |
| The Marginalisation of Religious Identity in Politics | 160 |
| After the Administrative Absorption of Politics | 166 |
| Chapter 5: Marginalised Christianity in Imperial Politics | 174 |
| The Cage for Christianity | 178 |
| The Huangchao Jingshi Wenbian and Its Significance | 183 |
| Christianity and Western Knowledge in the Discourses of the Scholar-Bureaucrats | 188 |
| The Marginalisation of Christianity and Western Knowledge in the Early Nineteenth Century | 197 |
| Chapter 6: A Different Kind of Religious Toleration | 202 |
| What Is Tolerance? | 203 |
| Religious Tolerance in Political Liberalism and Its Limitations and Critics | 206 |
| Beyond Liberalism: The Historical Approach | 210 |
| The Tolerance Experience of the Nomadic Empires | 213 |
| Confucian Theologies of Religions and Religious Tolerance | 219 |
| Religious Toleration and Confucian Views on Religion | 220 |
| Same Toleration, Different Foundations | 232 |
| Appendix I: Incidents of Islam and Christianity in the Yongzheng Era | 235 |
| Appendix II: Translations of Official Titles | 244 |
| Bibliography | 246 |
| Index | 279 |
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