Natural Language Annotation for Machine Learning

A history of the world told through the prism of language, from Shakespeare to Anne Frank, Martin Luther King to Greta Thunberg. A History of Words for Children explores the uniquely human ability to transfer thoughts from one brain to another using words. Written in a lively narrative style, the book presents a history of the world and human development through the prism of language, introducing readers to the civilisations, inventions and wordsmiths who have shaped the way we communicate.Divided into themed chapters, the book explores what words are and how humans communicate using spoken language and sign; the development of written scripts and writing implements, including paper; the history of manuscripts and printed books, including worldwide bestsellers and famous libraries; the process of learning another language; dialects and accents and the way language can reflect our identity; the power of words to calm, inspire, rally crowds and rule nations; graffiti's role in spreading

Maisy is heading to town. What do you see? Babies and toddlers will make easy language connections thanks to the bright, appealing pictures and words in this tabbed board book.Here comes the bus for Maisy to ride into town. What can be seen on the way? At the supermarket, there are many things on Maisy’s list. What can you find? From getting ready to leave the house to perusing a garden center to shopping for clothes, from a bicycle to an umbrella to an assortment of treats, little ones will find many things to recognize and discover as they have fun learning first words with Maisy.

Sophie, Hattie, and Owen go camping only to get spooked by some whispering in the woods in this eighteenth charming book of The Adventures of Sophie Mouse!Sophie, Hattie, and Owen are so excited to go camping! They prepare by learning how to set up a tent and making sure their bags are packed! But they aren’t prepared for the strange noises they hear while exploring their campsite. Is there someone else in the woods nearby, or is it just their imagination? As it gets dark out, and they hear the noises again, the friends decide they need to find out just what’s going on in these whispering woods.With easy-to-read language and illustrations on almost every page, the Sophie Mouse chapter books are perfect for beginning readers!

Spanked: How Hitting Our Children is Harming Ourselves is a historical and cultural analysis of the long accepted practice of hitting children for learning and obedience. The book begins with understanding who spanks and how the practice of using a hand to hit the buttocks of children evolved.Erickson explores the cultural factors from historical magazine articles and parenting books to contemporary beliefs that support this type of discipline. Spanking's connections to a variety of topics are clarified, including the feelings of parents, perceptions of children, potential child abuse, school corporal punishment, attachment and bonding, the legal language that allows hitting of one's children but not others, and international perspectives on physical punishment. The book invites an exploration of who we are as parents, and as a society, and what family leadership really means. Book group questions for families, professionals, and organizations lend the book useful for conversation and

Meet the biggest mammal in North America! Introduce elementary kids to bison, including the European species called wisent, in this North American Spanish translation. As national mammals of the United States, bison are captivating shaggy beasts that roam plains and forests. Readers explore this animal's features like its distinctive shoulder hump and behaviors like wallowing with STEM-appropriate text and gorgeous photography. An end story shares a Native American folk tale of how the bison have got its hump. A great nonfiction resource for Spanish-language learning and bilingual readers. Includes table of contents, index, same-page definitions, and further resources.

Meet the amazing sea lion! Introduce elementary kids to these marine mammals and their ocean lives in this North American Spanish translation. Long bodies, fancy flippers, and thick skin help these sea creatures swim with speed and agility. Readers explore the features, habitats, and behaviors of sea lions, including pup raising and colony life, all with STEM-appropriate text and gorgeous photography. An end folk tale from Japan tells why fishers respect these animals. A great nonfiction resource for Spanish-language learning and bilingual readers. Includes table of contents, index, same-page definitions, and further resources.

Meet the amazing swan, a symbol of love! Introduce elementary kids to these graceful birds and their lives in the wild in this North American Spanish translation. About as tall as a second-grader, swans are some of the biggest birds that can fly. And they can fly as fast as a car on a highway! Readers explore this big bird's features, behaviors, and habitats, including migrating and egg laying, with STEM-appropriate text and gorgeous photography. An end folk tale from Australia shares why some swans have black feathers. A great nonfiction resource for Spanish-language learning and bilingual readers. Includes table of contents, index, same-page definitions, and further resources.

Meet the amazing carrion-eating vulture! Introduce elementary kids these birds of prey and their lives in the wild in this North American Spanish translation. With amazing eyesight and smell, and a wide wingspan, vultures are remarkable raptors that are important to a healthy ecosystem. Readers explore this bird's behaviors, habitats, and features, including the differences between New World and Old World vultures, all with STEM-appropriate text and gorgeous photography. An end folk tale from Africa tells a story of how the vulture became bald. A great nonfiction resource for Spanish-language learning and bilingual readers. Includes table of contents, index, same-page definitions, and further resources.

Star Speakers for Readers’ Theater is a 12-book readers’ theater series in three levels designed for beginning learners of English. The books in the series feature adaptations of famous stories and original playlets, written using easy and functional language patterns. Students have fun practicing English through these familiar stories. The activities in each book prepare learners for a readers’ theater performance of the story at the end of each book. FeaturesRole-play activities to practice useful key language structures and phrasesActing tips with videos to assist students in using natural gestures, tone, and expressionGame activities to review new vocabularyOriginal songs to refine pronunciation and intonation skillsFlashcards for additional vocabulary practiceA playlet for a readers’ theater performanceA practice book for additional vocabulary, language, and fluency practice What Is Readers’ Theater? Readers’ theater is a fun and interactive way for learners for pra

Star Speakers for Readers’ Theater is a 12-book readers’ theater series in three levels designed for beginning learners of English. The books in the series feature adaptations of famous stories and original playlets, written using easy and functional language patterns. Students have fun practicing English through these familiar stories. The activities in each book prepare learners for a readers’ theater performance of the story at the end of each book. FeaturesRole-play activities to practice useful key language structures and phrasesActing tips with videos to assist students in using natural gestures, tone, and expressionGame activities to review new vocabularyOriginal songs to refine pronunciation and intonation skillsFlashcards for additional vocabulary practiceA playlet for a readers’ theater performanceA practice book for additional vocabulary, language, and fluency practice What Is Readers’ Theater? Readers’ theater is a fun and interactive way for learners for pra

Star Speakers for Readers’ Theater is a 12-book readers’ theater series in three levels designed for beginning learners of English. The books in the series feature adaptations of famous stories and original playlets, written using easy and functional language patterns. Students have fun practicing English through these familiar stories. The activities in each book prepare learners for a readers’ theater performance of the story at the end of each book. FeaturesRole-play activities to practice useful key language structures and phrasesActing tips with videos to assist students in using natural gestures, tone, and expressionGame activities to review new vocabularyOriginal songs to refine pronunciation and intonation skillsFlashcards for additional vocabulary practiceA playlet for a readers’ theater performanceA practice book for additional vocabulary, language, and fluency practice What Is Readers’ Theater? Readers’ theater is a fun and interactive way for learners for pra

Meet the hump-backed mammals of the desert! Introduce elementary kids to both species of camels, Bactrian and dromedaries, in this North American Spanish translation. Not many animals can thrive in the barren desert, but camels do it without breaking a sweat! Readers explore this desert dweller's features and behaviors, including its desert adaptations and use for people, with STEM-appropriate text and gorgeous photography. An end folk tale adapted from Rudyard Kipling tells how the camel got its humps. A great nonfiction resource for Spanish-language learning and bilingual readers. Includes table of contents, index, same-page definitions, and further resources.

Meet the largest birds in the world! Introduce elementary kids to pink flamingos and their lives in the wild in this North American Spanish translation. With their long legs, flamingos can easy wade through shallow soda lakes to scoop up fish. These large wading birds need a running start in order take flight. Readers explore this bird's behaviors, and habitats, features, including why its feathers are pink, with STEM-appropriate text and gorgeous photography. An end folk tale from South America shares why flamingos like salty water. A great nonfiction resource for Spanish-language learning and bilingual readers. Includes table of contents, index, same-page definitions, and further resources.

Meet the amazing gecko! Introduce elementary kids to these sticky climbers and their lives in the wild in this North American Spanish translation. Geckos are found on every continent except Antarctica and are popular reptile pets, but there's much more to know about this colorful lizard. Readers explore the gecko's features, behaviors, and habitats, including how geckos drop their tails to get away from predators, all with STEM-appropriate text and gorgeous photography. An end folk tale explains why Hawaiian people believe geckos are a sign of good luck. A great nonfiction resource for Spanish-language learning and bilingual readers. Includes table of contents, index, same-page definitions, and further resources.

Meet some of the world's smallest birds in this elementary introduction of hummingbirds, translated into North American Spanish. Small yet mighty, hummingbirds have incredible flying abilities, darting from flower to flower. They need all the nectar they can get to fuel their fast wings! Readers explore the hummingbird's features, behaviors, and habitats with STEM-appropriate text and gorgeous photography. An end folk tale shares a Mexican story about how these birds got their beautiful feathers. A great nonfiction resource for Spanish-language learning and bilingual readers. Includes table of contents, index, same-page definitions, and further resources.

Meet the largest cat of the Americas! Introduce elementary readers to the fearsome jaguar and its life in the wild in this North American Spanish translation. As beasts that kill with one leap, it easy to see why jaguars are the top predators of the rainforest. Readers explore this big cat's features, behaviors, and habitats with STEM-appropriate text and gorgeous photography. An end folk tale shares a story from South Africa about the jaguar's markings. A great nonfiction resource for Spanish-language learning and bilingual readers. Includes table of contents, index, same-page definitions, and further resources.

Meet Earth's heaviest lizard! Introduce elementary kids to Komodo dragons and their venomous bites in this North American Spanish translation. As monitor lizards, Komodo dragons are large and in charge. They can only be found on a few islands in Indonesia where there are no other predators. Readers explore this large reptile's features and behaviors, including its diet and baby dragons. An end folk tale shares an Indonesian story about where Komodo dragons come from. A great nonfiction resource for Spanish-language learning and bilingual readers. Includes table of contents, index, same-page definitions, and further resources.

Meet the amazing wild horse! Introduce elementary kids to this symbol of the American West and its life in the wild in this North American Spanish translation. Mustangs and brumbies are called wild, but Przewalski's horses are the only wild horses who have never been domesticated. Readers learn about all three kinds of wild horses and explore their features, behaviors, and home ranges, all with STEM-appropriate text and gorgeous photography. An end folk tale shares a Native American legend about Blackfoot Indians and why they are the best horse riders. A great nonfiction resource for Spanish-language learning and bilingual readers. Includes table of contents, index, same-page definitions, and further resources.

Meet nature's greatest engineer! Introduce elementary kids to beavers and their lives in the wild in this North American Spanish translation. Built for swimming and skilled at forming dams, beavers are large rodents with strong, tree-cutting teeth. With STEM-appropriate text, kids explore the animal's appearance, behavior, and habitat alongside gorgeous photography. An end story shares a folk tale from Florida of why beavers slap their tails on water. A great nonfiction resource for Spanish-language learning and bilingual readers. Includes table of contents, index, same-page definitions, and further resources.

Star Speakers for Readers’ Theater is a 12-book readers’ theater series in three levels designed for beginning learners of English. The books in the series feature adaptations of famous stories and original playlets, written using easy and functional language patterns. Students have fun practicing English through these familiar stories. The activities in each book prepare learners for a readers’ theater performance of the story at the end of each book. FeaturesRole-play activities to practice useful key language structures and phrasesActing tips with videos to assist students in using natural gestures, tone, and expressionGame activities to review new vocabularyOriginal songs to refine pronunciation and intonation skillsFlashcards for additional vocabulary practiceA playlet for a readers’ theater performanceA practice book for additional vocabulary, language, and fluency practice What Is Readers’ Theater? Readers’ theater is a fun and interactive way for learners for pra

Star Speakers for Readers’ Theater is a 12-book readers’ theater series in three levels designed for beginning learners of English. The books in the series feature adaptations of famous stories and original playlets, written using easy and functional language patterns. Students have fun practicing English through these familiar stories. The activities in each book prepare learners for a readers’ theater performance of the story at the end of each book. FeaturesRole-play activities to practice useful key language structures and phrasesActing tips with videos to assist students in using natural gestures, tone, and expressionGame activities to review new vocabularyOriginal songs to refine pronunciation and intonation skillsFlashcards for additional vocabulary practiceA playlet for a readers’ theater performanceA practice book for additional vocabulary, language, and fluency practice What Is Readers’ Theater? Readers’ theater is a fun and interactive way for learners for pra

Star Speakers for Readers’ Theater is a 12-book readers’ theater series in three levels designed for beginning learners of English. The books in the series feature adaptations of famous stories and original playlets, written using easy and functional language patterns. Students have fun practicing English through these familiar stories. The activities in each book prepare learners for a readers’ theater performance of the story at the end of each book. FeaturesRole-play activities to practice useful key language structures and phrasesActing tips with videos to assist students in using natural gestures, tone, and expressionGame activities to review new vocabularyOriginal songs to refine pronunciation and intonation skillsFlashcards for additional vocabulary practiceA playlet for a readers’ theater performanceA practice book for additional vocabulary, language, and fluency practice What Is Readers’ Theater? Readers’ theater is a fun and interactive way for learners for pra

Star Speakers for Readers’ Theater is a 12-book readers’ theater series in three levels designed for beginning learners of English. The books in the series feature adaptations of famous stories and original playlets, written using easy and functional language patterns. Students have fun practicing English through these familiar stories. The activities in each book prepare learners for a readers’ theater performance of the story at the end of each book. FeaturesRole-play activities to practice useful key language structures and phrasesActing tips with videos to assist students in using natural gestures, tone, and expressionGame activities to review new vocabularyOriginal songs to refine pronunciation and intonation skillsFlashcards for additional vocabulary practiceA playlet for a readers’ theater performanceA practice book for additional vocabulary, language, and fluency practice What Is Readers’ Theater? Readers’ theater is a fun and interactive way for learners for pra

From the award-winning author Alan Heathcock comes an American myth of the future: a vision of civil war, spectacle, and disaster of biblical proportions.In a future America ravaged by natural disaster, pandemic, and political unrest, a fundamentalist faction emerges. As the Novae Terrae gain power, enticing civilians with bread and circuses, a civil war breaks out between its members and the US government.Mazzy Goodwin, a young soldier, only wants to find her little sister, Ava Lynn. One day, she wakes in a bomb crater to find wings emerged from her back. Has she died? Been gifted wings by God? Undergone a military experiment?The world sees a miracle. Mazzy is coaxed into seeing it as an opportunity: to become the angel-like figurehead of the revolution, in return for being reunited with her sister. Her journey leads her to New Los Angeles, where the Novae have set up the headquarters for their propaganda machine?right in the ruins of Hollywood. Aided by friends old and new, she must

Discover the magic to be found in your very own backyard with the help of this fun and creative green witchcraft guidebook for kids! The Little Witchs Guide to Backyard Magicis a joyful guide that focuses on the basic principles of positive, nature-based ';green' witchcraft, which celebrates and fosters a deep respect for the natural world. Kids will discover the true wonder that the earth has to offer through the fun activities, simple spells, and cute crafts in this book, including: Easy divination, like tea leaf reading Crystal magic Weather magic Celebrating the seasons Ideas for magical gardening and working with plants Inviting and working respectfully with the friendlier fae Exploring the five elements Learning about the influence of the sun, moon, and stars And so much more! Through play and the exploration of the natural world, kids will experience the interconnectedness of all things and will learn that as much as magic can be found in the world around us, so too does it

How does brain activity give rise to sleep, dreams, learning, memory, and language? Do drugs like cocaine and heroin tap into the same neurochemical systems that evolved for life's natural rewards? What are the powerful new tools of molecular biology that are revolutionizing neuroscience? This undergraduate textbook explores the relation between brain, mind, and behavior. It clears away the extraneous detail that so often impedes learning, and describes critical concepts step by step, in straightforward language. Rich illustrations and thought-provoking review questions further illuminate the relations between biological, behavioral, and mental phenomena. With writing that is focused and engaging, even the more challenging topics of neurotransmission and neuroplasticity become enjoyable to learn. While this textbook filters out non-critical details, it includes all key information, allowing readers to remain focused and enjoy the feeling of mastery that comes from a grounded understand

Ideal for home learning, this simple and inspirational book has everything you need to get to grips with grammar and punctuation, and master essential reading and writing skills.Need help telling your adjectives from your adverbs? Struggling to work out what that poem is really about, or where to begin with your essay? Using short, straightforward explanations and clear graphics to shed light on the trickiest of topics, this is the perfect guide to understanding and using the English language.Illustrated examples make daunting grammar accessible and fun, and help develop an understanding that can be applied to school studies. Annotated texts complement concise, practical guidance to support students in developing sound analytical and writing skills. The carefully selected reading recommendations will inspire reading for pleasure, while clear links between topics will ensure that students not only understand language techniques but know how to apply them effectively.How to be Good at En

How does brain activity give rise to sleep, dreams, learning, memory, and language? Do drugs like cocaine and heroin tap into the same neurochemical systems that evolved for life's natural rewards? What are the powerful new tools of molecular biology that are revolutionizing neuroscience? This undergraduate textbook explores the relation between brain, mind, and behavior. It clears away the extraneous detail that so often impedes learning, and describes critical concepts step by step, in straightforward language. Rich illustrations and thought-provoking review questions further illuminate the relations between biological, behavioral, and mental phenomena. With writing that is focused and engaging, even the more challenging topics of neurotransmission and neuroplasticity become enjoyable to learn. While this textbook filters out non-critical details, it includes all key information, allowing readers to remain focused and enjoy the feeling of mastery that comes from a grounded understand

英語自學系列English for Everyone推出全彩常用英語字典，收錄超過一萬的常見單字及片語，依照日常生活、工作及旅行等情境主題分類，佐以插圖及音檔，視覺、聽覺學習雙管齊下，輕鬆累績單字力。Learn more than 10,000 of the most useful words and phrases in English with this beautifully illustrated dictionary for English-language students. Building on the success of the English for Everyone program and DK's Bilingual Visual Dictionary series, English for Everyone: Illustrated English Dictionary uses crystal-clear illustrations to show the meaning of over 10,000 words of English vocabulary. The words are shown in a visual context in themed sections covering practical or everyday topics (such as shopping, food, or study), providing learners with all the vocabulary they need for work, travel, and leisure. Learning English vocabulary is even easier with this visually stunning dictionary.

內容簡介 ˙The learning goals that center on the thematic units are set in accordance with the language proficiency levels, established by the ACTFL ˙To Comply with the pedagogical principle of backward design to establish the teaching/learning goals for the intermediate learner of Chinese ˙Integrates into its thematic contents the ACTFL-defined, three mores of language uses as well the 5C concepts ˙Assist the learner to achieve holistic progress and to cultivate specific linguistic abilities of Chinese ˙The selecting of keywords/phrases in thetextbooks is greatly in line with vocabulary levels defined by the HSK and by the TOCFL. The regional difference in language uses between the two sides of theTaiwan Strait are also meticulously annotated in the textbooks In recent years, the background of learners has become diversified, and the number of self-study students of elementary Chinese is also increasing. On the pedagogical front, however, learning materials, found to be biased towards s

Baby brother, I can't wait until you're older. Just imagine the adventures that lie ahead... An exquisitely illustrated and deeply joyful celebration of the bond between brothers.Join them as they explore the far reaches of this wild and amazing world, side by side every step of the way.From two highly acclaimed and award-winning creators. 'This is a very special picture book for all ages.We are with the brothers all the way - on the last pages, holding our breath.A masterpiece.' ANN JAMES'This beautiful book gives us the life we'd all love our children to have, out in the natural world, revelling in its beauty and truly being part of it.The exquisite illustrations are bursting with energy and colour, the language is rich yet simple and the brothers look after each other as brothers should.It really hits the spot, right in your heart.' ALISON LESTER'A heart-warming story about the powerful bond between brothers.' MARGARET WILD

Nineteenth-century German classical philology underpins many structures of the modern humanities. In this book, Constanze Güthenke shows how a language of love and a longing for closeness with a personified antiquity have lastingly shaped modern professional reading habits, notions of biography, and the self-image of scholars and teachers. She argues that a discourse of love was instrumental in expressing the challenges of specialisation and individual formation (Bildung), and in particular for the key importance of a Platonic scene of learning and instruction for imagining the modern scholar. The book is based on detailed readings of programmatic texts from, among others, Wolf, Schleiermacher, Boeckh, Thiersch, Dilthey, Wilamowitz and Nietzsche. It makes a case for revising established narratives, but also for finding new value in imagining distance and an absence of nostalgic longing for antiquity.

Discover the fascinating world of water! From a tiny drop to an enormous ocean, one of Earth's most important natural resources flows over land and underground, forms icebergs, and is even found in the air. This interactive book provides a comprehensive overview, exploring where water comes from and how it provides for all living things, and more! Readers can find out about the water cycle, dive into the ocean with marine animals, trace how water gets from a lake to our homes and explore ways in which water energy is used in our daily lives.‧ Supersized spreads feature detailed illustrations that just beg to be pored over again and again‧ More than 60 interactive flaps, tabs, pop-ups and more for hands-on learning‧ Educational content reviewed by an expertFans of The Ultimate Book of Water will also enjoy other books in the Ultimate Book? series, including Airplanes and Airports, Animals, Cities, Horses, Planet Earth, Space, Vehicles, and the Construction Site Book.‧ Great family and c

9791036338793 The Ultimate Book of Water (精裝立體知識百科)Discover the fascinating world of water! From a tiny drop to an enormous ocean, one of Earth's most important natural resources flows over land and underground, forms icebergs, and is even found in the air. This interactive book provides a comprehensive overview, exploring where water comes from and how it provides for all living things, and more! Readers can find out about the water cycle, dive into the ocean with marine animals, trace how water gets from a lake to our homes and explore ways in which water energy is used in our daily lives.‧ Supersized spreads feature detailed illustrations that just beg to be pored over again and again‧ More than 60 interactive flaps, tabs, pop-ups and more for hands-on learning‧ Educational content reviewed by an expert9791036313592 The Ultimate Book of Horses (精裝立體知識百科)Horses are amazing creatures! The Ultimate Book of Horses provides hours of hands-on discovery and includes age-appropria

This title is part of the important new series from Oxford which provides accessible introductions to the ideas, facts, and vocabulary behind an absorbing range of subjects. Meticulously researched and authoritative but written in simple language by experts in their fields, curious young readers will quickly get to grips with the basic principles and terminology of each subject. The Invisible World of Germs introduces, in a clear and interesting way, early theories about diseases and how they spread, what bacteria, fungi, protists and viruses are and how they behave.It also explores our natural defences and how we protect ourselves from the ever-changing threat of infection. The engaging design highlights the Heroes of the subject from early beginnings to modern day and explains tricky terminology in 'Speak like a Scientist' features. Comic strips andillustrations, amazing photographs, and a timeline, glossary and index, all make this handy-sized book the perfect way to learn.If you lo

Keep kids between grades 1 and 2 learning and building skills through the summer with the latest in the series of supplemental educational workbooks that explore language arts topics in Phonics, Writing, Spelling and Grammar, and Vocabulary, brought to you by the World’s Greatest Word Game―Mad Libs!Learning is ADJECTIVE, especially during the summer, and learning with Mad Libs is double the fun! With summer skill-building material that aligns with national Common Core Standards and is vetted by a top educational consultant, this workbook for kids between grades 1 and 2 is designed to reinforce lessons introduced in the classroom in an accessible way for young learners everywhere.Reluctant learners will love the interactive activities within the workbook, and fans of Mad Libs will be delighted to play their favorite summer-themed fill-in-the-blank word game at the end of each phonics, writing, and vocabulary lesson.Each Mad Libs exercise is crafted to reinforce subjects and themes taugh

Providing a concise and accessible overview of the design, implementation and management of medical software, this textbook will equip students with a solid understanding of critical considerations for both standalone medical software (software as a medical device/SaMD) and software that is integrated into hardware devices. It includes: practical discussion of key regulatory documents and industry standards, and how these translate into concrete considerations for medical software design; detailed coverage of the medical software lifecycle process ; accessible introduction to quality and risk management systems in the context of medical software; succinct coverage of essential topics in data science, machine learning, statistics, cybersecurity, software engineering and healthcare bring readers up-to-speed; six cautionary real-world case studies illustrate the dangers of improper or careless software processes. Accompanied by online resources for instructors, this is the ideal introduct

'Non-finiteness' is a phenomenon that occurs in most natural languages, whereby a verb is not inflected by grammatical tense, and does not possess the grammatical features of aspect, mood or voice. Various theories have been developed to explain their distribution and their role in clause structure, but many instances of non-finiteness remain unaccounted for. Taking a functional approach, this study proposes a 'process relation framework' to explain the more complex, previously unaccounted for, instances of non-finiteness in clause structure. It applies the framework comparatively to non-finiteness in English and Chinese, showing how it can be applied across typologically distinct languages. Drawing on corpus-based instances and observations, it introduces numerous thought-provoking cases, in which constructional (or combining) types and the predictability of non-finiteness co-occur. In terms of application, non-finiteness is decisive in categorising language types, and it is critica